Reference List

Alongi, Daniel M. "Present State and Future of the World’s Mangrove Forests." Environmental Conservation 29 (2002): 331-49. Web. 20 Nov. 2011. <http://cmbc.ucsd.edu/content/1/docs/alongi%202002.pdf>.

"Biosphere Reserve Information MALINDI-WATAMU." Http://www.unesco.org. Web. 20 Nov. 2011. <http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?mode=all&code=KEN+03>.

Kairo, J. G. "Restoration and Management of Mangrove Systems — a Lesson for and from the East African Region." South African Journal Of Botany 67.3 (2001): 383-89. Web. 20 Nov. 2011. <http://www.mendeley.com/research/restoration-and-management-of-mangrove-systems-a-lesson-for-and-from-the-east-african-region/#>.

"Kiunga Marine National Reserve." Http://www.magicalkenya.com. Web. 22 Nov. 2011. <http://www.magicalkenya.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=261&Itemid=221>.

"KWS | Kiunga National Marine Reserve." Kenya Wildlife Service. Web. 22 Nov. 2011. <http://www.kws.org/parks/parks_reserves/KMNR.html>.

Semesi, A. K. Mangrove Ecosystems of Tanzania. In Diop, 1993. Print.

Taylor, Michelle, Corinna Ravilious, and Edmund P. Green. Mangroves of East Africa. Publication. UNEP. Web. 20 Nov. 2011. <http://www.unep.org/training/programmes/Instructor%20Version/Part_2/Activities/Ecosystems/Oceans_and_Seas/Supplemental/Mangroves_of_East_Africa.pdf>.

"Terrestrial Ecoregions -- East African Mangroves (AT1402)." Wildlife Conservation, Endangered Species Conservation. Web. 22 Nov. 2011. <http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/at1402_full.html>.

"WWF - East African Mangroves." WWF - WWF. Web. 21 Nov. 2011. <http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/east_african_mangroves.cfm>.

The Future of Mangroves

As the importance of mangroves becomes understood, how they help keep the coastline, provide for subsistence farming such as fisheries, can be used for timber, etc.  Governments have started restoration programs committed to use mangroves more sustainably.  Many regions that have been clear cut have become wastelands that cannot recover on their own.

In the past, attempts at restoring mangroves have been made for eco-tourism, integrated fish culture, and reducing soil erosion.  However, not all of these tries have been successful.  Sometimes the environment has been changed so much, such as the salinity of soil, that replanting trees is not possible.  Although impact from humans accounts for much of the destruction of mangroves, they have also been harmed by natural disasters  In order to restore a mangrove, soil stability, flooding regime, salinity, tidal energy, and fresh water runoff must all be considered.  What species are selected to repopulate, depending on their normal growing conditions, also influence whether or not restoration will be a success or not.

Two methods of restoration that have been used are natural regeneration and artificial regeneration.

Natural regeneration is the best way if the soil erosion in the location is not too bad.  In this method, propagules are dropped from neighboring trees, are not washed away by the waters, and are able to grow there on their own.

When the propagules cannot stick in the soil and regrow, artificial regeneration must be used, where propagules and saplings are hand-planted.  Transplanted propagules and saplings have been found to have a very high success rate of regrowing due to this method.


Increased awareness about the importance of mangroves has played a big part in its regeneration.  Although there have been mixed successes with restoration projects, I think as more research is done on what species to plant, what techniques to use, such as natural or artificial regeneration, and what conditions are optimal, the results will become more positive.  There are also many groups out there that have created guidelines on how to keep mangroves sustainable, including: creating a buffer zone between mangroves and industry or housing areas, banning pond aquaculture, establishing pollution controls, etc.  Also, because mangroves are a source of income, governments have more incentive to protect them.

Protected Areas- Malindi-Watamu Biosphere Reserve

The second protected area is the Malindi-Watamu Biosphere Reserve, Africa's first marine park, an area of tidal mud flats, mangrove swamps, sea-grass beds, and also coral reef off the coast of Kenya.  It was recognized by the UN as a world biosphere in 1979.  It is home to around 600 species of fish, 110 species of coral and invertebrates, crustaceans, and mollusks.  Studies on coral, sea turtles, and sedimentation are conducted here.

Watamu

      47% of Kenyan tourism occurs at the Malindi-Watamu Reserve, with attractions include swimming with dolphins, underwater caves, diving sites, and water sports. The warm climate and white sandy beaches are what draw people to visit.  


Watamu is home to many species of sea turtles and has a turtle watch program that monitors and protects the shore in order to ensure that the area is safe for endangered sea turtles to nest at.  Green, Hawksbill, and Olive Ridley turtles can be found here.  

Bleaching of coral reefs

      The status of the Malindi-Watamu Biosphere Reserve is under threat.  The worst impact on this area has been from bleaching of the water in 1997 and 1998.  The bleaching killed off a lot of the coral reefs, and although efforts at recovery have been made, it is recovering more slowly than other areas have been able to recover.    Siltation from the Sabaki River is polluting the waters, which can be very bad for the sensitive coral polyps.  Oil spills from tankers have also majorly affected the habitat.  Tourism is big, and due to the large number of tourists in the area, shells and corals are being sold as souvenirs and trampling and or anchorage has damaged the reefs.  The large amount of tourism has led to an increase in urbanization and coastal development which takes away from the marine environment and destroys coastal habitats.    

Protected Areas- Kiunga Marine National Reserve

There are two protected areas within this ecoregion.  The first is the Kiunga Marine National Reserve, a chain of islands and coral reefs off the coast of Northern Kenya in the Lamu archipelago.  The reserve is filled with mangroves, sea grass meadows, and coral reefs and provides a refuge for dugongs, nesting birds, and green sea turtles. Many people visit to see the sand dunes, coral reefs, and Kiwayu island. 

Green Sea Turtle

Dugong

At the Kiunga Marine National Reserve, although only traditional styles of fishing are allowed, there is still a threat of over-fishing.  Shells and corals are also taken from the area to be used as souvenirs.  The green sea turtle and dugong that live in the reserve are also illegally poached and sold on the black market for their meat. The Liberal National Party and the World Wildlife Fund are currently working together in efforts to stop the illegal poaching and animal brutality the dugongs and turtles are facing. 

People and the Mangroves

The effect of people on East African Mangroves is bad.  Their current status is critical or endangered.  Although there are efforts made to preserve them, such as the creation of biospheres and reserves, mangroves have been severely depleted throughout the years.  Once they covered 15,100 sq. km, but they are now estimated to only be as large as 2,555 sq. km to 7,211 sq. km, less than half their original size.  Globally, mangroves are estimated to have covered 75% of tropical coastlines, but only around 50% survive today.

Mangroves are used mainly for subsistence farming, so they are removed to provide space for agriculture and fishing.  They have been turned into rice paddies, saltpans, and aquaculture.  In the last century, mangrove trees were in high demand from sultans to use in buildings on Zanzibar.  Today, around 70% of Kenyans living on the coast use mangrove trees to build their houses.  From 1893 to present, the Germans have had control of mangrove tree trade along East Africa to the Middle East, where the trees are converted to charcoal.

Pollution of the water is also a problem.  Siltation from rivers that run into the mangrove bring with them sediment that are harmful to coral polyps and organisms living in the area, leading to coastal erosion.  Industrial runoff, untreated wastes from factories, and pesticides also change the water.  Damming of rivers, which leads to changes in water temperature and salinity, is also common.

As the population in this area grows, it is being overused.  Mangroves have been made into protected areas, national parks, and reserves, but there is still a large area of mangroves in Somalia that is not currently protected due to a lack of organization in the government.

Where are East African Mangroves found?

East African Mangroves can be found along the eastern coasts of Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia, Tanzania, and the western coast of Madagascar.  They are mostly located in deltas and rivers, as this is where the salt water and land meet. 

Mangroves protect shorelines from erosion and can be distinguished by the distinct root systems of the trees.  At low tide, mangroves are home to birds, crustacean, and mollusks.  At high tide, it is home to many species of fish.

Historically, the Eastern African Mangroves used to be the size of Connecticut and Rhode Island combined, or 5,800 sq. miles (15,100 sq. kilometers).  It includes the mangroves found in Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya, and Somalia. They occur there because of the seasonal wind patterns and coastal currents.  Rainfall in the mangroves varies from 750 to 1,500 mm each year.